Lysine and proline based flame retardants

ABSTRACT

A flame retardant lysine-based derivative, a process for forming a flame retardant lysine-based derivative, and an article of manufacture comprising a flame retardant lysine-based derivative are disclosed. The flame retardant lysine-derived molecule can be synthesized from a bio-based source, and can have at least one phosphoryl or phosphonyl moiety. A flame retardant proline-based derivative, a process for forming a flame retardant proline-based derivative, and an article of manufacture comprising a flame retardant proline-based derivative are also disclosed. The flame retardant proline-derived molecule can be synthesized from a bio-based source and can have at least one phosphoryl or phosphonyl moiety.

BACKGROUND

The present disclosure relates generally to the field of bio-renewablecompounds, and more particularly, to bio-renewable flame retardants.

Bio-based, sustainable compounds can be used in the syntheses ofsubstances that previously required petroleum-based raw materials. Forexample, bio-based compounds can be used in polymers, flame retardants,cross-linkers, etc. There are numerous strategies for efficiently andinexpensively producing bio-based compounds on an industrial scale.These strategies can include fermentation technologies, membranetechnologies, and genetic engineering, to name a few.

SUMMARY

A flame retardant lysine-based derivative, a process for forming a flameretardant lysine-based derivative, and an article of manufacturecomprising a flame retardant lysine-based derivative are disclosed. Theflame retardant lysine-derived molecule can be synthesized from abio-based source and can have at least one phosphoryl or phosphonylmoiety. A flame retardant proline-based derivative, a process forforming a flame retardant proline-based derivative, and an article ofmanufacture comprising a flame retardant proline-based derivative arealso disclosed. The flame retardant proline-derived molecule can besynthesized from a bio-based source and can have at least one phosphorylor phosphonyl moiety.

The above summary is not intended to describe each illustratedembodiment or every implementation of the present disclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The drawings included in the present disclosure are incorporated into,and form part of, the specification. They illustrate embodiments of thepresent disclosure and, along with the description, serve to explain theprinciples of the disclosure. The drawings are only illustrative oftypical embodiments and do not limit the disclosure.

FIG. 1 is a flow diagram illustrating a process of forming a flameretardant polymer containing proline-derived or lysine-derivedmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic representation of the molecular structures ofgeneric phosphorus-based flame retardant molecules, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating two processes ofsynthesizing the phosphate-based flame retardant molecule, in accordancewith embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating two processes ofsynthesizing the phosphonate-based flame retardant molecule, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process ofsynthesizing a carboxylic acid-derived flame retardant thiol moleculeand a process of synthesizing a hydroxy-derived flame retardant thiolmolecule, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3D is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process ofsynthesizing an amino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic representation of the molecular structures ofthree thiol molecules that are involved in the synthesis of someexamples of the flame retardant lysine-derived, proline-derived, reducedlysine-derived, or reduced proline-derived molecules, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 5 is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating processes for formingreduced lysine, reduced proline, protected reduced lysine, and protectedreduced proline molecules from lysine and proline, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process ofsynthesizing a flame retardant lysine-derived small molecule and aprocess of forming a trifunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derivedcross-linker, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6B is a chemical diagram illustrating an allyl functionalized flameretardant lysine-derived cross-linker and an epoxy functionalized flameretardant lysine-derived cross-linker, in accordance with embodiments ofthe present disclosure.

FIG. 6C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process ofsynthesizing a flame retardant reduced lysine-derived small molecule anda process of forming a trifunctionalized flame retardant reducedlysine-derived cross-linker, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 6D is a chemical diagram illustrating an allyl functionalized flameretardant reduced lysine-derived cross-linker and an epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derived cross-linker, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6E is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process ofsynthesizing a flame retardant proline-derived small molecule and aprocess of forming a difunctionalized flame retardant proline-derivedcross-linker, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6F is a chemical diagram illustrating an allyl functionalized flameretardant proline-derived cross-linker and an epoxy functionalized flameretardant proline-derived cross-linker, in accordance with embodimentsof the present disclosure.

FIG. 6G is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process ofsynthesizing a flame retardant reduced proline-derived small moleculeand a process of forming a trifunctionalized flame retardant reducedproline-derived cross-linker, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 6H is a chemical diagram illustrating an allyl functionalized flameretardant reduced proline-derived cross-linker and an epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derived cross-linker, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes ofsynthesizing thioether-linked flame retardant lysine-derived smallmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes ofsynthesizing thioether-linked flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedsmall molecules, in accordance with embodiments of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 7C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes ofsynthesizing thioether-linked flame retardant proline-derived smallmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7D is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes ofsynthesizing thioether-linked flame retardant reduced proline-derivedsmall molecules, in accordance with embodiments of the presentdisclosure

FIG. 8A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes ofsynthesizing thioether-linked flame retardant lysine-derivedcross-linkers, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes ofsynthesizing thioether-linked flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedcross-linkers, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes ofsynthesizing thioether-linked flame retardant proline-derivedcross-linkers, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8D is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes ofsynthesizing thioether-linked flame retardant reduced proline-derivedcross-linkers, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8E is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process ofsynthesizing a propylene carbonate-functionalized flame retardantlysine-derived cross-linker and a process of synthesizing propylenecarbonate-functionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedcross-linker, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8F is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process ofsynthesizing a propylene carbonate-functionalized flame retardantproline-derived cross-linker and a process of synthesizing a propylenecarbonate-functionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derivedcross-linker, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming monofunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecules, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming monofunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming monofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived molecules, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9D is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming monofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived molecules, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9E is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming monofunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derivedmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9F is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming monofunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derivedmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming difunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecules, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming difunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 11A is a chemical diagram illustrating three processes ofsynthesizing tetrafunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 11B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming tetrafunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecules, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 12A is a chemical diagram illustrating three processes of formingpentafunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecules, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 12B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes offorming pentafunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 13 is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating processes ofsynthesizing flame retardant lysine-based, reduced lysine-based,proline-based, or reduced proline-based polymers from flame retardantlysine-derived, reduced lysine-derived, proline-derived, or reducedproline-derived monomers, in accordance with embodiments of the presentdisclosure.

While the embodiments described herein are amenable to variousmodifications and alternative forms, specifics thereof have been shownby way of example in the drawings and will be described in detail. Itshould be understood, however, that the particular embodiments describedare not to be taken in a limiting sense. On the contrary, the intentionis to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives fallingwithin the spirit and scope of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Aspects of the present disclosure relate generally to the field ofbio-renewable compounds, and more particularly, to bio-renewable flameretardants. While the present disclosure is not necessarily limited tosuch applications, various aspects of the disclosure may be appreciatedthrough a discussion of various examples using this context.

Bio-based compounds are increasingly being used in the syntheses ofsubstances that previously required petroleum-based raw materials. Onebenefit of bio-based compounds is that they are from renewableresources. Therefore, these compounds have applications in sustainable,or “green,” materials. Sustainable materials are becoming more and moreprevalent due to the rising costs of fossil fuels and increasingenvironmental regulatory controls. Advances in biotechnology haveprovided numerous strategies for efficiently and inexpensively producingbio-based compounds on an industrial scale. For example, thesestrategies can be found in fermentation technologies, membranetechnologies, and genetic engineering. Two approaches that can usebiotechnologies are plant-based and microorganism-based approaches.Plant-based approaches can involve obtaining a material directly from aplant, or growing plant tissues or cells that can produce bio-basedcompounds from various substrates using their own biosynthetic pathways.Microorganism-based approaches involve using native or geneticallymodified fungi, yeast, or bacteria to produce a desired compound from astructurally similar substrate.

Bio-based compounds can be used in a variety of applications. Forexample, bio-based compounds can be used in polymers, flame retardants,and cross-linkers. In some examples, bio-based polymers andpetroleum-based polymers are blended to form a polymer composite.However, polymers can also be entirely bio-based, or produced from acombination of bio- and petroleum-based monomers. Bio-based compoundscan impart flame retardant properties to bio- and petroleum-basedpolymers. For example, flame retardant molecules or cross-linkers can beincorporated into polymers. Additionally, flame retardant monomers canbe polymerized to form flame retardant polymers.

Lysine, proline, and their reduced derivatives (2,6-diaminohexan-1-oland pyrrolidin-2-ylmethanol, respectively) are examples of bio-basedcompounds that have applications as a component of various polymers,resins, and monomers. Lysine and proline are amino acids used in thebiosynthesis of proteins. Lysine and proline can be naturally obtainedfrom various biological sources, including: animal meat, legumes,vegetables, and eggs, to name a few. Lysine can be synthesized fromcaprolactam. Proline can be synthesized from diethyl malonate andacrylonitrile. Industrially, lysine is manufactured through fermentationusing Corynebacterium glutamicum. This fermentation production exceeds600,000 tons a year. Similarly, proline can be industrially producedthrough Corynebacterium glutamicum fermentation.

According to embodiments of the present disclosure, lysine, a reducedlysine derivative (2,6-diaminohexan-1-ol), proline, and a reducedproline derivative (pyrrolidin-2-ylmethanol) are used as a precursor forvarious flame retardant molecules (e.g., small molecules orfunctionalized molecules). The lysine, proline, reduced lysine, andreduced proline flame retardant molecules can be added to polymers,fabrics, resins, or other materials during blending, curing, foaming,extrusion, or other processing techniques. In addition to directlyadding the lysine-derived and/or proline-derived flame retardants intothe materials during processing, the flame retardants may be integratedinto microcapsules. Lysine and reduced lysine-derived cross-linkers eachhave three functional R groups, which may bind to resins and/orpolymers. Proline and reduced proline-derived cross-linkers each havetwo functional R groups, which may bind to resins and/or polymers. Theaddition of these cross-linkers causes a resin or polymer to be flameretardant. The lysine-derived and proline-derived molecules may bemultifunctional (e.g., monofunctional or difunctional), depending on thenumber of functional R groups bound to the molecules.

FIG. 1 is a flow diagram illustrating a process 100 of forming a flameretardant polymer containing proline-derived or lysine-derivedmolecules, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.Process 100 begins by obtaining proline, lysine, reduced proline, orreduced lysine at step 105. These molecules may be naturally obtained(e.g., from various biological sources) or synthesized from otherbiomolecules (e.g., lysine may be synthesized from caprolactam andproline may be synthesized from diethyl malonate or acrylonitrile).Further, reduced lysine and reduced proline may be synthesized fromlysine and proline, respectively. At step 110, phosphorus-based flameretardant molecules are obtained. The phosphorus-based flame retardantmolecules may have either a phosphoryl or a phosphonyl moiety(collectively referred to as an FR group) with an attached R functionalgroup or phenyl (Ph) group. The R groups that are attached to the FRgroups can vary, as is discussed in greater detail below. Thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecules can be phosphate- orphosphonate-based flame retardant molecules. The structures andsyntheses of phosphorus-based flame retardant molecules are discussed ingreater detail with regard to FIGS. 2-3D.

After proline, lysine, reduced proline, or reduced lysine molecules andphosphorus-based flame retardant molecules are obtained at steps 105 and110, respectively, the proline, lysine, reduced proline, or reducedlysine molecules are reacted with the phosphorus-based flame retardantmolecules to form functionalized flame retardant proline, lysine,reduced proline, or reduced lysine-derived molecules at step 115. Thestructures and syntheses of the functionalized flame retardant moleculesare discussed in greater detail with regard to FIGS. 6-12.

The structure of the functionalized flame retardant molecule formed atoperation 115 is determined by the precursor (e.g., proline, lysine,reduced proline, and reduced lysine) and phosphorus-based flameretardant molecule used in the reaction. The phosphorus-based flameretardant molecule reacts with an amine, hydroxyl, and/or carboxylicacid group on the proline, lysine, reduced proline, or reduced lysine toprovide an FR group with an attached R functional group. Examples of Rgroups can include phenyl substituents, epoxy functional groups, allylfunctional groups, propylene carbonate substituents,hydroxyl-functionalized thioether substituents, amino-functionalizedthioether substituents, carboxylic acid-functionalized thioethersubstituents, etc. The syntheses and structures of the functionalizedflame retardant lysine-derived, reduced lysine-derived, proline derived,or reduced proline-derived molecules are discussed in greater detailwith regard to FIGS. 6-12.

The proline, lysine, reduced proline, or reduced lysine derived flameretardant molecules are processed at step 120. The nature of theprocessing may depend on the identity of the flame retardant derivative.Processing 120 may include chemically reacting a functionalized (e.g.,monofunctional, difunctional, trifunctional, etc.) flame retardantproline, lysine, reduced proline, or reduced lysine derived moleculewith a polymer, forming a bond between the flame retardant and thepolymer. In some embodiments, processing 120 may include adding a flameretardant proline, lysine, reduced proline, or reduced lysine smallmolecule to a polymer (e.g., during blending, extrusion, etc.). Examplesof polymers include epoxies, polyhydroxyurethanes, polycarbonates,polyesters, polyacrylates, polyimides, polyamides, polyureas,poly(vinyl-esters), etc. The materials for these polymers can come frompetroleum-based sources, bio-based sources, or a combination ofpetroleum- and bio-based sources. Further, in some embodiments, theflame retardant molecules can be used in non-polymeric applications,such as resins for varnishes and adhesives. Flame retardant lysine,reduced lysine, proline, or reduced proline monomers may be polymerizedin a reaction with a base and/or second monomer. Additionally, in someembodiments, the monomers may be polymerized in a reaction with aZiegler-Natta catalyst. Polymerizations reactions with the flameretardant monomers are discussed in greater detail with regard to FIG.13.

FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic representation of the molecular structures 202of R-substituted phosphorus-based flame retardant molecules 240, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. Eachphosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 is either aphosphate-based flame retardant molecule 240-1 or a phosphonate-basedflame retardant molecule 240-2. Herein, phosphoryl and phosphonylmoieties are replaced by the abbreviation “FR” in order to simplifyillustrations of the molecular structures. Each phosphorus-based flameretardant molecule 240 has a phenyl (Ph) substituent and an R group. Insome examples, the R group can bind to a resin. Further, the molecularstructures of diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) and diphenylphosphinicchloride (DPCPo) are also illustrated in FIG. 2. DPCPa is aphosphate-based flame retardant molecule 240-1, where the R-substituteis a phenyl group. DPCPo is a phosphonate-based flame retardant molecule240-2, where the R-substitute is a phenyl group. DPCPa and DPCPo may beused in forming various proline, reduced proline, lysine, and reducedlysine derived small molecules and functionalized molecules.

The identities of the R groups bound to the phosphorus-based flameretardant molecules 240 vary, and are discussed in greater detail withrespect to FIGS. 3A-3D. Additionally, in some embodiments, the phenylgroup is replaced by an alkyl substituent (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl,isopropyl, etc.). Further, in some embodiments, the phenyl groupspresent on diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinicchloride (DPCPo) may be replaced by similar non-polar functional groups(e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, etc.) The syntheses of thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecules 240 are discussed with regardto FIGS. 3A-3D.

FIG. 3A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating two processes 300-1and 300-2 of synthesizing the phosphate-based flame retardant molecule240-1, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. In bothprocesses 300-1 and 300-2, an alcohol 305 is a starting material for thephosphate-based flame retardant molecule 240-1. The alcohol 305 haseither an allyl R₁ group 307 or an epoxide R₁ group 308. It should benoted that, though an allyl group 307 with a single methylene spacergroup is illustrated here, other alcohols with allylic chains of varyinglengths (e.g., one to twelve methylene spacer groups) could be used.Additionally, alcohols with acrylate substituents are used in someembodiments.

In process 300-1, the alcohol 305 is reacted with diphenyl phosphite andtitanium isopropoxide (Ti(O^(i)Pr)₄) in benzene to produce a precursor310 to the phosphate-based flame retardant molecule 240-1. In thispseudo-transesterification reaction, the precursor 310 is formed when aphenyl (Ph) substituent on diphenyl phosphite is replaced by an allyl307 or epoxide 308 R₁ group from the alcohol 305. The precursor 310 isthen reacted with thionyl chloride (SOCl₂) and carbon tetrachloride(CCl₄) over a range of 0° C. to room temperature (RT), forming thephosphate-based flame retardant molecule 240-1.

In process 300-2, the alcohol 305 is reacted with phenyldichlorophosphate in a tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution containingtriethyl amine (Et₃N). This process is carried out over a range of 0° C.to room temperature (RT). A chloride on the phenyl dichlorophosphate isreplaced by the alcohol 305, forming the phosphate-based flame retardantmolecule 240-1 with an allyl 307 or epoxide 308 R₁ group.

FIG. 3B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating two processes 300-3and 300-4 of synthesizing the phosphonate-based flame retardant molecule240-2, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. In bothprocesses 300-3 and 300-4, an organochloride 320 is a starting materialfor the phosphonate-based flame retardant molecule 240-2. Theorganochloride has either an allyl R₁ group 307 or an epoxide R₁ group308. It should be noted that, as in the case of the alcohol 305, otherorganochlorides with allylic chains of varying lengths (e.g., one totwelve methylene spacer groups) could be used. Additionally,organochlorides with acrylate substituents are used in some embodiments.

In process 300-3, the organochloride 320 is reacted with triphenylphosphite (P(OPh)₃). The mixture is heated, either by refluxing intoluene or microwaving (mw) in ethanol (EtOH), producing a phosphonylester precursor 325 to the phosphonate-based flame retardant molecule240-2. The phosphonyl ester precursor 325 is reacted with phosphoruspentachloride (PCl₅) to form the phosphonate-based flame retardantmolecule 240-2 with an allyl 307 or epoxide 308 R₁ group.

In process 300-4, a mixture of the organochloride 320 and triphenylphosphite (P(OPh)₃) is heated, either by refluxing in toluene ormicrowaving (mw) in ethanol (EtOH), forming a phenylphosphinic acidprecursor 327 to the phosphonate-based flame retardant molecule 240-2.The reaction is then quenched by raising the pH of the solution. In thisprophetic example, an ethanol (EtOH)/water (H₂O) solution of sodiumhydroxide (NaOH) is added to the reaction mixture. However, in someembodiments, bases other than sodium hydroxide, such as potassiumhydroxide or lithium hydroxide, are used to quench the reaction. Whenthe reaction has been quenched, thionyl chloride (SOCl₂) is added to thephenylphosphinic acid precursor 327, producing the phosphonate-basedflame retardant molecule 240-2 with an allyl 307 or epoxide 308 R₁group.

FIG. 3C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process 300-5 ofsynthesizing a carboxylic acid-derived flame retardant thiol molecule345 and a process 300-6 of synthesizing a hydroxy-derived flameretardant thiol molecule 360, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure. In process 300-5, acetate-protected thiopropionicacid 340 is reacted with magnesium oxide (MgO) and diphenylchlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). Theacetate group is then removed by refluxing the mixture in an ethanol(EtOH) solution containing sodium hydroxide (NaOH), yielding thecarboxylic acid-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 345. If theprocess is carried out with DPCPa, the carboxylic acid-derived flameretardant thiol molecule 345 will have phosphoryl FR groups, and, if thereaction is carried out with DPCPo, the carboxylic acid-derived flameretardant thiol molecule 345 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 300-6, allyl alcohol 305-1 is reacted with thioacetic acid ina thiol-ene reaction. In the first step of the reaction, oxygen (O₂) isadded to a dichloromethane (DCM) solution of the allyl alcohol 305-1 andthioacetic acid. The mixture is refluxed, resulting in anacetate-protected mercaptopropanol 355. The second step in the reactionis a substitution reaction involving diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa)and catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) or diphenylphosphinicchloride (DPCPo). The acetate group is removed by refluxing the mixturein an ethanol (EtOH) solution containing sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Thisstep results in the production of the hydroxy-derived flame retardantthiol molecule 360. If the process is carried out with DPCPa, thehydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360 will have phosphorylFR groups, and, if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, thehydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360 will have phosphonylFR groups.

FIG. 3D is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process 300-7 ofsynthesizing an amino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 375, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. In process 300-7,1-(boc-amino)-3-butene 365 is first reacted with thioacetic acid in athiol-ene reaction. Azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) is added to thedioxane solution of 1-(boc-amino)-3-butene 365 and thioacetic acid, andthe mixture is stirred at 75° C., resulting in an acetate-protectedprecursor 370 to the amino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 375.The second step in process 300-7 is a substitution reaction withdiphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo)and catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP). The acetate group and bocgroups are removed under basic conditions (e.g., by refluxing themixture in an ethanol (EtOH) solution containing sodium hydroxide(NaOH)). This step results in the production of the amino-derived flameretardant thiol molecule 375. If the process is carried out with DPCPa,the amino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 375 will havephosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo,the amino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 375 will havephosphonyl FR groups.

FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic representation of the molecular structures ofthree thiol molecules that are involved in the synthesis of someexamples of the flame retardant lysine-derived, proline-derived, reducedlysine-derived, or reduced proline-derived molecules, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. The three thiol molecules are2-mercaptoethanol 410, cysteamine hydrochloride (HCl) 420, and3-mercaptopropionate 430. Each of these thiols is involved in thesynthesis of a thioether-linked flame retardant derivative. In thesesyntheses, the thiol molecules provide thioether R groups. Details ofthe syntheses and structures of the thioether-linked flame retardantlysine, proline, reduced lysine, or reduced proline-derived moleculesare discussed in greater detail with regard to FIGS. 8A-8D.

FIG. 5 is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating processes for formingreduced lysine 515, reduced proline 520, protected reduced lysine 525,and protected reduced proline 530 molecules from lysine 505 and proline510, in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. Inprocess 500-1, lysine 505 is reduced using lithium aluminum hydride(LiAlH₄) in a diethyl ether solution (Et₂O) to yield2,6-diaminohexan-1-ol 515 (herein referred to as “reduced lysine 515”).The reduced lysine 515 molecule obtained in process 500-1 is thenreacted with tert-butyldimethylsilyl chloride (TBSCl) and imidazole in adichloromethane (DCM) solution in process 500-2 to yield(S)-6-((tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy)hexane-1,5-diamine 525 (hereinreferred to as “protected reduced lysine 525”). In process 500-3,proline 510 is reduced using lithium aluminum hydride in a diethyl ethersolution (Et₂O) to yield pyrrolidin-2-ylmethanol 520 (herein referred toas “reduced proline 520”). In process 500-4, the reduced proline 520 isthen reacted with tert-butyldimethylsilyl chloride (TBSCl) and imidazolein a dichloromethane (DCM) solution to yield(R)-2-(((tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy)methyl)pyrrolidine 530 (hereinreferred to as “protected reduced proline 530”). The lysine 505, reducedlysine 515, protected reduced lysine 525, proline 510, reduced proline520, and protected reduced proline 530 molecules depicted in FIG. 5 canthen be used as a precursor for forming various flame retardantmolecules, shown and discussed in greater detail with respect to FIGS.6-13.

FIG. 6A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process 600-1 ofsynthesizing a flame retardant lysine-derived small molecule 605 and aprocess 600-2 of forming a trifunctionalized flame retardant lysinecross-linker 615, in accordance with embodiments of the presentdisclosure. In process 600-1, lysine 505 is reacted with either diphenylchlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). Themixture is refluxed with catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in adichloromethane (DCM) solution. The resulting mixture is reacted witheither diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride(DPCPo) and magnesium oxide (MgO), producing the flame retardantlysine-derived small molecule 605. If the process is carried out withDPCPa, the flame retardant lysine-derived small molecule 605 will havephosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo,the flame retardant lysine-derived small molecule 605 will havephosphonyl FR groups.

In process 600-2, lysine 505 is reacted with a phosphorus-based flameretardant molecule 240 and catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (cat. DMAP)in a dichloromethane (DCM) solution, and the resulting mixture isreacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 andmagnesium oxide (MgO), to yield the allyl functionalized or the epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker 615. If lysine 505 isreacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 having anallyl R₁ group 307, the functionalized flame retardant will be an allylfunctionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker (e.g., R₁ as shown onFIG. 6A will be an allyl functional group 307, see FIG. 6B). If lysine505 is reacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240having an epoxy R₁ group 308, the functionalized flame retardant will bean epoxy functionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker (e.g., R₁ asshown on FIG. 6A will be an epoxy functional group 308, see FIG. 6B). Ifthe reaction is carried out with phosphate-based flame retardantmolecule 240-1, the trifunctionalized flame retardant lysinecross-linker 615 will have a phosphoryl FR group, and, if the reactionis carried out with the phosphonate-based flame retardant molecule240-2, the trifunctionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker 615will have a phosphonyl FR group.

FIG. 6B illustrates an epoxy functionalized flame retardant lysinecross-linker 615-1 and an allyl functionalized flame retardant lysinecross-linker 615-2, in accordance with embodiments of the presentdisclosure. As mentioned with regard to FIG. 6A, if lysine 505 isreacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 having anepoxy R₁ group 308, the functionalized flame retardant will be the epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker 615-1. If lysine 505is reacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 havingan allyl R₁ group 307, the functionalized flame retardant will be theallyl functionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker 615-2.

FIG. 6C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process 600-3 ofsynthesizing a flame retardant reduced lysine-derived small molecule 625and a process 600-4 of forming a trifunctionalized flame retardantreduced lysine cross-linker 635, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure. In process 600-3, reduced lysine 515 is reacted witheither diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride(DPCPo). The mixture is refluxed with catalytic dimethylaminopyridine(DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM) solution. The resulting mixture isreacted with either diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) ordiphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo) and magnesium oxide (MgO), producingthe flame retardant reduced lysine-derived small molecule 625. If theprocess is carried out with DPCPa, the flame retardant reducedlysine-derived small molecule 625 will have phosphoryl FR groups, and,if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, the flame retardant reducedlysine-derived small molecule 625 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 600-4, reduced lysine 515 is reacted with a phosphorus-basedflame retardant molecule 240 and catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP)in a dichloromethane (DCM) solution, and the resulting mixture isreacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 andmagnesium oxide (MgO), to yield the trifunctionalized flame retardantreduced lysine cross-linker 635. If reduced lysine 515 is reacted with aphosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 having an allyl R₁ group307, the functionalized flame retardant will be an allyl functionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine cross-linker (e.g., R₁ as shown on FIG.6C will be an allyl functional group 307, see FIG. 6D). If reducedlysine 515 is reacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule240 having an epoxy R₁ group 308, the functionalized flame retardantwill be an epoxy functionalized flame retardant reduced lysinecross-linker (e.g., R₁ as shown on FIG. 6C will be an epoxy functionalgroup 308, see FIG. 6D). If the reaction is carried out withphosphate-based flame retardant molecule 240-1, the trifunctionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine cross-linker 635 will have a phosphorylFR group, and, if the reaction is carried out with the phosphonate-basedflame retardant molecule 240-2, the trifunctionalized flame retardantreduced lysine cross-linker 635 will have a phosphonyl FR group.

FIG. 6D illustrates an epoxy functionalized flame retardant reducedlysine cross-linker 635-1 and an allyl functionalized flame retardantreduced lysine cross-linker 635-2, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure. As mentioned with regard to FIG. 6C, if reducedlysine 515 is reacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule240 having an epoxy R₁ group 308, the functionalized flame retardantwill be the epoxy functionalized flame retardant reduced lysinecross-linker 635-1. If reduced lysine 515 is reacted with aphosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 having an allyl R₁ group307, the functionalized flame retardant will be the allyl functionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine cross-linker 635-2.

FIG. 6E is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process 600-5 ofsynthesizing a flame retardant proline-derived small molecule 610 and aprocess 600-6 of forming an allyl functionalized or an epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant proline cross-linker 620, in accordancewith embodiments of the present disclosure. In process 600-5, proline510 is reacted with either diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) ordiphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). The mixture is refluxed withcatalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM)solution. The resulting mixture is reacted with either diphenylchlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo) andmagnesium oxide (MgO), producing the flame retardant proline-derivedsmall molecule 610. If the process is carried out with DPCPa, the flameretardant proline-derived small molecule 610 will have phosphoryl FRgroups, and, if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, the flameretardant proline-derived small molecule 610 will have phosphonyl FRgroups.

In process 600-6, proline 510 is reacted with a phosphorus-based flameretardant molecule 240 and catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in adichloromethane (DCM) solution, and the resulting mixture is reactedwith a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 and magnesium oxide(MgO), to yield the allyl functionalized or the epoxy functionalizedflame retardant proline cross-linker 620. If proline 510 is reacted witha phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 having an allyl R₁ group307, the functionalized flame retardant will be an allyl functionalizedflame retardant proline cross-linker (e.g., R₁ as shown on FIG. 6E willbe an allyl functional group 307, see FIG. 6F). If proline 510 isreacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 having anepoxy R₁ group 308, the functionalized flame retardant will be an epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant proline cross-linker (e.g., R₁ as shownon FIG. 6E will be an epoxy functional group 308, see FIG. 6F). If thereaction is carried out with phosphate-based flame retardant molecule240-1, the difunctionalized flame retardant proline cross-linker 620will have a phosphoryl FR group, and, if the reaction is carried outwith the phosphonate-based flame retardant molecule 240-2, thedifunctionalized flame retardant proline cross-linker 620 will have aphosphonyl FR group.

FIG. 6F is a chemical diagram illustrating an epoxy functionalized flameretardant proline cross-linker 620-1 and an allyl functionalized flameretardant proline cross-linker 620-2, in accordance with embodiments ofthe present disclosure. As mentioned with regard to FIG. 6E, if proline510 is reacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240having an epoxy R₁ group 308, the functionalized flame retardant will bethe epoxy functionalized flame retardant proline cross-linker 620-1. Ifproline 510 is reacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule240 having an allyl R₁ group 307, the functionalized flame retardantwill be the allyl functionalized flame retardant proline cross-linker620-2.

FIG. 6G is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating a process 600-7 ofsynthesizing a flame retardant reduced proline-derived small molecule630 and a process 600-8 of forming an allyl functionalized or an epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline cross-linker 640, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. In process 600-7,reduced proline 520 is reacted with either diphenyl chlorophosphate(DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). The mixture is refluxedwith catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM)solution. The resulting mixture is reacted with either diphenylchlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo) andmagnesium oxide (MgO), producing the flame retardant reducedproline-derived small molecule 630. If the process is carried out withDPCPa, the flame retardant reduced proline-derived small molecule 630will have phosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction is carried out withDPCPo, the flame retardant reduced proline-derived small molecule 630will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 600-8, reduced proline 520 is reacted with a phosphorus-basedflame retardant molecule 240 and catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP)in a dichloromethane (DCM) solution, and the resulting mixture isreacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 andmagnesium oxide (MgO), to yield the allyl functionalized or the epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline cross-linker 640. Ifreduced proline 520 is reacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardantmolecule 240 having an allyl R₁ group 307, the functionalized flameretardant will be an allyl functionalized flame retardant reducedproline cross-linker (e.g., R₁ as shown on FIG. 6G will be an allylfunctional group 307, see FIG. 6H). If reduced proline 520 is reactedwith a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 having an epoxy R₁group 308, the functionalized flame retardant will be an epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline cross-linker (e.g., R₁ asshown on FIG. 6G will be an epoxy functional group 308, see FIG. 6H). Ifthe reaction is carried out with phosphate-based flame retardantmolecule 240-1, the difunctionalized flame retardant reduced prolinecross-linker 640 will have a phosphoryl FR group, and, if the reactionis carried out with the phosphonate-based flame retardant molecule240-2, the difunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline cross-linker640 will have a phosphonyl FR group.

FIG. 6H illustrates an epoxy functionalized flame retardant reducedproline cross-linker 640-1 and an allyl functionalized flame retardantreduced proline cross-linker 640-2, in accordance with embodiments ofthe present disclosure. As mentioned with regard to FIG. 6G, if reducedproline 520 is reacted with a phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule240 having an epoxy R₁ group 308, the functionalized flame retardantwill be the epoxy functionalized flame retardant reduced prolinecross-linker 640-1. If reduced proline 520 is reacted with aphosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 having an allyl R₁ group307, the functionalized flame retardant will be the allyl functionalizedflame retardant reduced proline cross-linker 640-2.

FIG. 7A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes700-1, 700-2, and 700-3 of synthesizing thioether-linked flame retardantlysine-derived small molecules, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure. Each process is a thiol-ene reaction between theallyl-substituted flame retardant lysine cross-linker 615-2 and a flameretardant thiol molecule 345, 360, or 375. The syntheses and structuresof the flame retardant thiol molecules are discussed in greater detailwith regard to FIGS. 3C and 3D.

In process 700-1, the allyl functionalized flame retardant lysinecross-linker 615-2 is reacted with the carboxylic acid-derived flameretardant thiol molecule 345 under UV light (e.g., light with awavelength of approximately 100-400 nm) in a methanol (MeOH) solution.The resulting thioether-linked flame retardant lysine-derived smallmolecule 702 has a thioether R₂ group 722 that corresponds to thecarboxylic acid-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 345. In process700-2, the allyl functionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker615-2 is reacted with the amino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule375 in a methanol (MeOH) solution with a pH of approximately 8-11 underUV light. The resulting thioether-linked flame retardant lysine-derivedsmall molecule 704 has a thioether R₃ group 724 that corresponds to theamino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 375. In process 700-3, theallyl functionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker 615-2 isreacted with the hydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360under UV light. The resulting thioether-linked flame retardantlysine-derived small molecule 706 has a thioether R₄ group 726 thatcorresponds to the hydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360.

FIG. 7B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes700-4, 700-5, and 700-6 of synthesizing thioether-linked flame retardantreduced lysine-derived small molecules, in accordance with embodimentsof the present disclosure. Each process is a thiol-ene reaction betweenthe allyl-substituted flame retardant reduced lysine cross-linker 635-2and a flame retardant thiol molecule 345, 360, or 375. The syntheses andstructures of the flame retardant thiol molecules are discussed ingreater detail with regard to FIGS. 3C and 3D.

In process 700-4, the allyl functionalized flame retardant reducedlysine cross-linker 635-2 is reacted with the carboxylic acid-derivedflame retardant thiol molecule 345 under UV light in a methanol (MeOH)solution. The resulting thioether-linked flame retardant reducedlysine-derived small molecule 708 has a thioether R₂ group 722 thatcorresponds to the carboxylic acid-derived flame retardant thiolmolecule 345. In process 700-5, the allyl functionalized flame retardantreduced lysine cross-linker 635-2 is reacted with the amino-derivedflame retardant thiol molecule 375 in a methanol (MeOH) solution with apH of approximately 8-11 under UV light. The resulting thioether-linkedflame retardant reduced lysine-derived small molecule 710 has athioether R₃ group 724 that corresponds to the amino-derived flameretardant thiol molecule 375. In process 700-6, the allyl functionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine cross-linker 635-2 is reacted with thehydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360 under UV light. Theresulting thioether-linked flame retardant reduced lysine-derived smallmolecule 706 has a thioether R₄ group 726 that corresponds to thehydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360.

FIG. 7C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes700-7, 700-8, and 700-9 of synthesizing thioether-linked flame retardantproline-derived small molecules, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure. Each process is a thiol-ene reaction between theallyl-substituted flame retardant proline cross-linker 620-2 and a flameretardant thiol molecule 345, 360, or 375. The syntheses and structuresof the flame retardant thiol molecules are discussed in greater detailwith regard to FIGS. 3C and 3D.

In process 700-7, the allyl functionalized flame retardant prolinecross-linker 620-2 is reacted with the carboxylic acid-derived flameretardant thiol molecule 345 under UV light (e.g., light with awavelength of approximately 100-400 nm) in a methanol (MeOH) solution.The resulting thioether-linked flame retardant proline-derived smallmolecule 714 has a thioether R₂ group 722 that corresponds to thecarboxylic acid-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 345. In process700-8, the allyl functionalized flame retardant proline cross-linker620-2 is reacted with the amino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule375 in a methanol (MeOH) solution with a pH of approximately 8-11 underUV light. The resulting thioether-linked flame retardant proline-derivedsmall molecule 716 has a thioether R₃ group 724 that corresponds to theamino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 375. In process 700-9, theallyl functionalized flame retardant proline cross-linker 620-2 isreacted with the hydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360under UV light. The resulting thioether-linked flame retardantproline-derived small molecule 718 has a thioether R₄ group 726 thatcorresponds to the hydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360.

FIG. 7D is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes700-10, 700-11, and 700-12 of synthesizing thioether-linked flameretardant reduced proline-derived small molecules, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. Each process is a thiol-enereaction between the allyl-substituted flame retardant reducedcross-linker 640-2 and a flame retardant thiol molecule 345, 360, or375. The syntheses and structures of the flame retardant thiol moleculesare discussed in greater detail with regard to FIGS. 3C and 3D.

In process 700-10, the allyl functionalized flame retardant reducedproline cross-linker 640-2 is reacted with the carboxylic acid-derivedflame retardant thiol molecule 345 under UV light in a methanol (MeOH)solution. The resulting thioether-linked flame retardant reducedproline-derived small molecule 728 has a thioether R₂ group 722 thatcorresponds to the carboxylic acid-derived flame retardant thiolmolecule 345. In process 700-11, the allyl functionalized flameretardant reduced proline cross-linker 640-2 is reacted with theamino-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 375 in a methanol (MeOH)solution with a pH of approximately 8-11 under UV light. The resultingthioether-linked flame retardant reduced proline-derived small molecule730 has a thioether R₃ group 724 that corresponds to the amino-derivedflame retardant thiol molecule 375. In process 700-12, the allylfunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline cross-linker 640-2 isreacted with the hydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360under UV light. The resulting thioether-linked flame retardant reducedproline-derived small molecule 732 has a thioether R₄ group 726 thatcorresponds to the hydroxy-derived flame retardant thiol molecule 360.

FIG. 8A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes800-1, 800-2, and 800-3 of synthesizing thioether-linked flame retardantlysine-derived cross-linkers, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure. Each process is a thiol-ene reaction between theallyl functionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker 615-2 and athiol molecule. The thiol molecules used in processes 800-1, 800-2, and800-3 are 2-mercaptoethanol 410, cysteamine HCl 420, and3-mercaptopropionate 430, respectively. The structures of these thiolmolecules are illustrated in FIG. 4.

In process 800-1 the allyl functionalized flame retardant lysinecross-linker 615-2 is reacted with 2-mercaptoethanol 410 under UV light.The resulting hydroxyl-functionalized flame retardant lysine-derivedcross-linker 802 has thioether R₅ groups 822 that correspond to2-mercaptoethanol 410. In process 800-2 the allyl functionalized flameretardant lysine cross-linker 615-2 is reacted with cysteamine HCl 420in a pH of approximately 8-11 methanol (MeOH) solution under UV light.The resulting amino-functionalized flame retardant lysine-derivedcross-linker 804 has thioether R₆ groups 824 that correspond tocysteamine HCl 420. In process 800-3 the allyl functionalized flameretardant lysine cross-linker 615-2 is reacted with 2-mercaptopropionate430 under UV light in a methanol (MeOH) solution. The resultingcarboxylic acid-functionalized flame retardant lysine-derivedcross-linker 806 has thioether R₇ groups 826 that correspond to3-mercaptopropionate 430.

FIG. 8B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes800-4, 800-5, and 800-6 of synthesizing thioether-linked flame retardantreduced lysine-derived cross-linkers, in accordance with embodiments ofthe present disclosure. Each process is a thiol-ene reaction between theallyl functionalized flame retardant reduced lysine cross-linker 635-2and a thiol molecule. The thiol molecules used in processes 800-4,800-5, and 800-6 are 2-mercaptoethanol 410, cysteamine HCl 420, and3-mercaptopropionate 430, respectively. The structures of these thiolmolecules are illustrated in FIG. 4.

In process 800-4, the allyl functionalized flame retardant reducedlysine cross-linker 635-2 is reacted with 2-mercaptoethanol 410 under UVlight. The resulting hydroxyl-functionalized flame retardant reducedlysine-derived cross-linker 808 has thioether R₅ groups 822 thatcorrespond to 2-mercaptoethanol 410. In process 800-5 the allylfunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine cross-linker 635-2 isreacted with cysteamine HCl 420 in a pH of approximately 8-11 methanol(MeOH) solution under UV light. The resulting amino-functionalized flameretardant reduced lysine-derived cross-linker 810 has thioether R₆groups 824 that correspond to cysteamine HCl 420. In process 800-6, theallyl functionalized flame retardant reduced lysine cross-linker 635-2is reacted with 2-mercaptopropionate 430 under UV light in a methanol(MeOH) solution. The resulting carboxylic acid-functionalized flameretardant reduced lysine-derived cross-linker 812 has thioether R₇groups 826 that correspond to 3-mercaptopropionate 430.

FIG. 8C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes800-7, 800-8, and 800-9 of synthesizing thioether-linked flame retardantproline-derived cross-linkers, in accordance with embodiments of thepresent disclosure. Each process is a thiol-ene reaction between theallyl functionalized flame retardant proline cross-linker 620-2 and athiol molecule. The thiol molecules used in processes 800-7, 800-8, and800-9 are 2-mercaptoethanol 410, cysteamine HCl 420, and3-mercaptopropionate 430, respectively. The structures of these thiolmolecules are illustrated in FIG. 4.

In process 800-7 the allyl functionalized flame retardant prolinecross-linker 620-2 is reacted with 2-mercaptoethanol 410 under UV light.The resulting hydroxyl-functionalized flame retardant proline-derivedcross-linker 814 has thioether R₅ groups 822 that correspond to2-mercaptoethanol 410. In process 800-8 the allyl functionalized flameretardant proline cross-linker 620-2 is reacted with cysteamine HCl 420in a pH of approximately 8-11 methanol (MeOH) solution under UV light.The resulting amino-functionalized flame retardant proline-derivedcross-linker 816 has thioether R₆ groups 824 that correspond tocysteamine HCl 420. In process 800-9 the allyl functionalized flameretardant proline cross-linker 620-2 is reacted with2-mercaptopropionate 430 under UV light in a methanol (MeOH) solution.The resulting carboxylic acid-functionalized flame retardantproline-derived cross-linker 818 has thioether R₇ groups 826 thatcorrespond to 3-mercaptopropionate 430.

FIG. 8D is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes800-10, 800-11, and 800-12 of synthesizing thioether-linked flameretardant reduced proline-derived cross-linkers, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. Each process is a thiol-enereaction between the allyl functionalized flame retardant reducedproline cross-linker 640-2 and a thiol molecule. The thiol moleculesused in processes 800-10, 800-11, and 800-12 are 2-mercaptoethanol 410,cysteamine HCl 420, and 3-mercaptopropionate 430, respectively. Thestructures of these thiol molecules are illustrated in FIG. 4.

In process 800-10 the allyl functionalized flame retardant reducedproline cross-linker 640-2 is reacted with 2-mercaptoethanol 410 underUV light. The resulting hydroxyl-functionalized flame retardant reducedproline-derived cross-linker 828 has thioether R₅ groups 822 thatcorrespond to 2-mercaptoethanol 410. In process 800-11 the allylfunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline cross-linker 640-2 isreacted with cysteamine HCl 420 in a pH of approximately 8-11 methanol(MeOH) solution under UV light. The resulting amino-functionalized flameretardant reduced proline-derived cross-linker 830 has thioether R₆groups 824 that correspond to cysteamine HCl 420. In process 800-12 theallyl functionalized flame retardant reduced proline cross-linker 640-2is reacted with 2-mercaptopropionate 430 under UV light in a methanol(MeOH) solution. The resulting carboxylic acid-functionalized flameretardant reduced proline-derived cross-linker 832 has thioether R₇groups 826 that correspond to 3-mercaptopropionate 430.

FIG. 8E is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating processes 800-13 and800-14 of synthesizing a propylene carbonate-functionalized flameretardant lysine-derived cross-linker 836 and a propylenecarbonate-functionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedcross-linker 838, in accordance with embodiments of the presentdisclosure. In process 800-13 the epoxy functionalized flame retardantlysine cross-linker 615-1 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting intothe headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling through thesolution. This step yields the propylene carbonate-functionalized flameretardant lysine-derived cross-linker 836 with a propylene carbonate R₈functional group 834. In process 800-14 the epoxy functionalized flameretardant reduced lysine cross-linker 635-1 is combined with lithiumbromide (LiBr). Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either byinjecting into the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubblingthrough the solution. This step yields the propylenecarbonate-functionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedcross-linker 838 with a propylene carbonate R₈ functional group 834.

FIG. 8F is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating processes 800-15 and800-16 of synthesizing a propylene carbonate-functionalized flameretardant proline-derived cross-linker 840 and a propylenecarbonate-functionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derivedcross-linker 842, in accordance with embodiments of the presentdisclosure. In process 800-15 the epoxy functionalized flame retardantproline cross-linker 620-1 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting intothe headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling through thesolution. This step yields the propylene carbonate-functionalized flameretardant proline-derived cross-linker 840 with a propylene carbonate R₈functional group 834. In process 800-16 the epoxy functionalized flameretardant reduced proline cross-linker 640-1 is combined with lithiumbromide (LiBr). Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either byinjecting into the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubblingthrough the solution. This step yields the propylenecarbonate-functionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derivedcross-linker 842 with a propylene carbonate R₈ functional group 834.

FIG. 9A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes900-1, 900-2, and 900-3 of forming monofunctionalized flame retardantlysine derived molecules 902, 904 and 906, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. In process 900-1, lysine 505 isreacted with either diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) ordiphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). The mixture is refluxed withcatalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM)solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is usedinstead of DMAP. The resulting molecules are then reacted with thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 (e.g., 240-1 or 240-2),where the R₁ functional group is an epoxy functional group 308, andmagnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an epoxy monofunctionalized flameretardant lysine derived molecule 902. If the process is carried outwith DPCPa, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant lysine derivedmolecule 902 will have phosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction iscarried out with DPCPo, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 902 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-2, lysine 505 is reacted with either diphenylchlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). Themixture is refluxed with catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in adichloromethane (DCM) solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometrictrimethylamine is used instead of DMAP. Further, in process 900-2, theresulting molecules are then reacted with the phosphorus-based flameretardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an allylfunctional group 307, and magnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an allylmonofunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecule 904. If theprocess is carried out with DPCPa, the allyl monofunctionalized flameretardant lysine-derived molecule 904 will have phosphoryl FR groups,and, if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, the allylmonofunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecule 904 will havephosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-3, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 902 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate monofunctionalizedflame retardant lysine-derived molecule 906.

FIG. 9B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes900-4, 900-5, and 900-6 of forming monofunctionalized flame retardantreduced lysine-derived molecules 908, 910, and 912, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. In process 900-4, protectedreduced lysine 525 is reacted with either diphenyl chlorophosphate(DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). The mixture is refluxedwith catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM)solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is usedinstead of DMAP. Next, the protected reduced lysine with diphenylfunctionalized FR groups bound to the amine functional groups arereacted with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF) and tetrahydrofuran(THF) to deprotect the hydroxyl group present on the protected reducedlysine 525. After deprotection, the resulting molecules are then reactedwith the phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁functional group is an epoxy functional group 308, and magnesium oxide(MgO) to yield an epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant reducedlysine-derived molecule 908. If the process is carried out with DPCPa,the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedmolecule 908 will have phosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction iscarried out with DPCPo, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardantreduced lysine-derived molecule 908 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-5, protected reduced lysine 525 is reacted with eitherdiphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo).The mixture is refluxed with catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in adichloromethane (DCM) solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometrictrimethylamine is used instead of DMAP. Next, the protected reducedlysine with diphenyl functionalized FR groups bound to the aminefunctional groups are reacted with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF)and tetrahydrofuran (THF) to deprotect the hydroxyl group present on theprotected reduced lysine 525. After deprotection, the resultingmolecules are then reacted with the phosphorus-based flame retardantmolecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an allyl functional group307, and magnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an allyl monofunctionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule 910. If the process iscarried out with DPCPa, the allyl monofunctionalized flame retardantreduced lysine-derived molecule 910 will have phosphoryl FR groups, and,if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, the allyl monofunctionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule 910 will have phosphonylFR groups.

In process 900-6, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant reducedlysine-derived molecule 908 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate monofunctionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule 912.

FIG. 9C is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes900-7, 900-8, and 900-9 of forming monofunctionalized flame retardantproline-derived molecules 914, 916, and 918, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. In process 900-7, proline 510 isreacted with either diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) ordiphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). The mixture is refluxed withcatalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM)solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is usedinstead of DMAP. The resulting molecules are then reacted with thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functionalgroup is an epoxy functional group 308, and magnesium oxide (MgO) toyield an epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derivedmolecule 914. If the process is carried out with DPCPa, the epoxymonofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived molecule 914 willhave phosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction is carried out withDPCPo, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derivedmolecule 914 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-8, proline 510 is reacted with either diphenylchlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). Themixture is refluxed with catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in adichloromethane (DCM) solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometrictrimethylamine is used instead of DMAP. The resulting molecules are thenreacted with the phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, wherethe R₁ functional group is an allyl functional group 307, and magnesiumoxide (MgO) to yield an allyl monofunctionalized flame retardantproline-derived molecule 916. If the process is carried out with DPCPa,the allyl monofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived molecule916 will have phosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction is carried outwith DPCPo, the allyl monofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derivedmolecule 916 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-9, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardantproline-derived molecule 914 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate monofunctionalizedflame retardant proline-derived molecule 918.

FIG. 9D is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes900-10, 900-11, and 900-12 of forming monofunctionalized flame retardantproline-derived molecules 920, 922, and 924, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. The monofunctionalized flameretardant proline-derived molecules formed in FIG. 9D differ from themonofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived molecules illustratedin FIG. 9C, as the diphenyl FR is bound to the carboxylic acid group inFIG. 9D as opposed to the amino group in FIG. 9C.

In process 900-10, proline 510 is reacted with the phosphorus-basedflame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an epoxyfunctional group 308. The mixture is refluxed with catalyticdimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM) solution. Insome embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is used instead of DMAP.The resulting molecules are then reacted with either diphenylchlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo), andmagnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an epoxy monofunctionalized flameretardant proline-derived molecule 920. If the process is carried outwith DPCPa, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derivedmolecule 920 will have phosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction iscarried out with DPCPo, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardantproline-derived molecule 920 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-11, proline 510 is reacted with the phosphorus-basedflame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an allylfunctional group 307. The mixture is refluxed with catalyticdimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM) solution. Insome embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is used instead of DMAP.Further, in process 900-11, the resulting molecules are then reactedwith either diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinicchloride (DPCPo), and magnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an allylmonofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived molecule 922. If theprocess is carried out with DPCPa, the allyl monofunctionalized flameretardant proline-derived molecule 922 will have phosphoryl FR groups,and, if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, the allylmonofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived molecule 922 willhave phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-12, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardantproline-derived molecule 920 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate monofunctionalizedflame retardant proline-derived molecule 924.

FIG. 9E is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes900-13, 900-14, and 900-15 of forming monofunctionalized flame retardantreduced proline-derived molecules 926, 928, and 930, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. In process 900-13, protectedreduced proline 530 is reacted with either diphenyl chlorophosphate(DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo). The mixture is refluxedwith catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM)solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is usedinstead of DMAP. Next, the protected reduced proline molecules withdiphenyl functionalized FR groups bound to the amine functional groupsare reacted with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF) andtetrahydrofuran (THF) to deprotect the hydroxyl group present on theprotected reduced proline 530. After deprotection, the resultingmolecules are then reacted with the phosphorus-based flame retardantmolecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an epoxy functional group308, and magnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an epoxy monofunctionalizedflame retardant reduced proline-derived molecule 926. If the process iscarried out with DPCPa, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardantreduced proline-derived molecule 926 will have phosphoryl FR groups, andif the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, the epoxy monofunctionalizedflame retardant reduced proline-derived molecule 926 will havephosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-14, protected reduced proline 530 is reacted with eitherdiphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo).The mixture is refluxed with catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in adichloromethane (DCM) solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometrictrimethylamine is used instead of DMAP. Next, the protected reducedproline molecules with diphenyl functionalized FR groups bound to theamine functional groups are reacted with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride(TBAF) and tetrahydrofuran (THF) to deprotect the hydroxyl group presenton the protected reduced proline 530. After deprotection, the resultingmolecules are then reacted with the phosphorus-based flame retardantmolecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an allyl functional group307, and magnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an allyl monofunctionalizedflame retardant reduced proline-derived molecule 928. If the process iscarried out with DPCPa, the allyl monofunctionalized flame retardantreduced proline-derived molecule 928 will have phosphoryl FR groups,and, if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, the allylmonofunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derived molecule 928will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-15, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant reducedproline-derived molecule 926 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate monofunctionalizedflame retardant reduced proline-derived molecule 930.

FIG. 9F is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes900-16, 900-17, and 900-18 of forming monofunctionalized flame retardantreduced proline-derived molecules 932, 934, and 936, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. The monofunctionalized flameretardant reduced proline-derived molecules formed in FIG. 9F differfrom the monofunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived moleculesformed in FIG. 9E, as the diphenyl FR is bound to the carboxylic acidgroup in FIG. 9F as opposed to the amino group in FIG. 9E.

In process 900-16, protected reduced proline 530 is reacted with thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functionalgroup is an epoxy functional group 308. The mixture is refluxed withcatalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM)solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is usedinstead of DMAP. Next, the protected reduced proline molecules withepoxy functionalized FR groups bound to the amine functional groups arereacted with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF) and tetrahydrofuran(THF) to deprotect the hydroxyl group present on the protected reducedproline 530. After deprotection, the resulting molecules are thenreacted with either diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) ordiphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo), and magnesium oxide (MgO) to yieldan epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derivedmolecule 932. If the process is carried out with DPCPa, the epoxymonofunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derived molecule 932will have phosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction is carried out withDPCPo, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant reducedproline-derived molecule 932 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-17, protected reduced proline 530 is reacted with thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functionalgroup is an allyl functional group 307. The mixture is refluxed withcatalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM)solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is usedinstead of DMAP. Next, the protected reduced proline molecules withallyl functionalized FR groups bound to the amine functional groups arereacted with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF) and tetrahydrofuran(THF) to deprotect the hydroxyl group present on the protected reducedproline 530. After deprotection, the resulting molecules are reactedwith either diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinicchloride (DPCPo), and magnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an allylmonofunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derived molecule 934.If the process is carried out with DPCPa, the allyl monofunctionalizedflame retardant reduced proline-derived molecule 934 will havephosphoryl FR groups, and if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, theallyl monofunctionalized flame retardant reduced proline-derivedmolecule 934 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 900-18, the epoxy monofunctionalized flame retardant reducedproline-derived molecule 932 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate monofunctionalizedflame retardant reduced proline-derived molecule 936.

With respect to FIG. 9A through FIG. 9F, the same reaction conditions asimplemented in FIG. 8A through 8D can be implemented to synthesizethioether-linked monofunctionalized flame retardants. Specifically,allyl monofunctionalized flame retardant derivatives 904, 910, 916, 922,928 and 934 can be reacted with thiol-ene molecules mercaptoethanol 410,cysteamine HCl 420, and 3-mercaptopropionate 430 (illustrated in FIG. 4)to yield monofunctionalized thioether-linked flame retardant molecules.

For example, allyl monofunctionalized flame retardant derivatives 904,910, 916, 922, 928 and 934 can be reacted with 2-mercaptoethanol 410under UV light, resulting in hydroxyl-monofunctionalized flame retardantderivatives. Allyl monofunctionalized flame retardant derivatives 904,910, 916, 922, 928 and 934 can be reacted with cysteamine HCl 420 in apH of approximately 8-11 methanol (MeOH) solution under UV light toyield amino-monofunctionalized flame retardant derivatives. Further,allyl monofunctionalized flame retardant derivatives 904, 910, 916, 922,928 and 932 can be reacted with 2-mercaptopropionate 430 under UV lightin a methanol (MeOH) solution to yield carboxylicacid-monofunctionalized flame retardant derivatives.

FIG. 10A is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes1000-1, 1000-2, and 1000-3 of forming difunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecules 1002, 1004, and 1006, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. In process 1000-1, lysine 505 isreacted with the phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, wherethe R₁ functional group is an epoxy functional group 308. The mixture isrefluxed with catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in adichloromethane (DCM) solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometrictrimethylamine is used instead of DMAP. Further, in process 1000-1, theresulting molecules are then reacted with either diphenylchlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo), andmagnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an epoxy difunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 1002. If the process is carried out with DPCPa,the epoxy difunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1002will have phosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction is carried out withDPCPo, the epoxy difunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derivedmolecule 1002 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 1000-2, lysine 505 is reacted with the phosphorus-based flameretardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an allylfunctional group 307. The mixture is refluxed with catalyticdimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM) solution. Insome embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is used instead of DMAP.Further, in process 1000-2, the resulting molecules are then reactedwith either diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinicchloride (DPCPo), and magnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an allyldifunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1004. If theprocess is carried out with DPCPa, the allyl difunctionalized flameretardant lysine-derived molecule 1004 will have phosphoryl FR groups,and, if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, the allyldifunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1004 will havephosphonyl FR groups.

In process 1000-3, the epoxy difunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 1002 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate difunctionalizedflame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1006.

FIG. 10B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes1000-4, 1000-5, and 1000-6 of forming difunctionalized flame retardantreduced lysine-derived molecules 1008, 1010, and 1012, in accordancewith embodiments of the present disclosure. In process 1000-4, protectedreduced lysine 525 is reacted with the phosphorus-based flame retardantmolecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an epoxy functional group308. The mixture is refluxed with catalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP)in a dichloromethane (DCM) solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometrictrimethylamine is used instead of DMAP. Next, the protected reducedlysine molecules with epoxy functionalized FR groups bound to the aminefunctional groups are reacted with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF)and tetrahydrofuran (THF) to deprotect the hydroxyl group present on theprotected reduced lysine 525. After deprotection, the resultingmolecules are then reacted with either diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa)or diphenylphosphinic chloride (DPCPo), and magnesium oxide (MgO) toyield an epoxy difunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedmolecule 1008. If the process is carried out with DPCPa, the epoxydifunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule 1008will have phosphoryl FR groups, and, if the reaction is carried out withDPCPo, the epoxy difunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derivedmolecule 1008 will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 1000-5, protected reduced lysine 525 is reacted with thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functionalgroup is an allyl functional group 307. The mixture is refluxed withcatalytic dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) in a dichloromethane (DCM)solution. In some embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is usedinstead of DMAP. Next, the protected reduced lysine molecules with allylfunctionalized FR groups bound to the amine functional groups arereacted with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF) and tetrahydrofuran(THF) to deprotect the hydroxyl group present on the protected reducedlysine 525. After deprotection, the resulting molecules are reacted witheither diphenyl chlorophosphate (DPCPa) or diphenylphosphinic chloride(DPCPo), and magnesium oxide (MgO) to yield an allyl difunctionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule 1010. If the process iscarried out with DPCPa, the allyl difunctionalized flame retardantreduced lysine-derived molecule 1010 will have phosphoryl FR groups,and, if the reaction is carried out with DPCPo, the allyldifunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule 1010will have phosphonyl FR groups.

In process 1000-6, the epoxy difunctionalized flame retardant reducedlysine-derived molecule 1008 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate difunctionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule 1012.

With respect to FIG. 10A and FIG. 10B, the same reaction conditions asimplemented in FIG. 8A through 8D can be implemented to synthesizethioether-linked difunctionalized lysine and reduced lysine flameretardants. Specifically, allyl difunctionalized flame retardant lysineand reduced lysine-derived molecules 1004 and 1010, respectively, can bereacted with thiol-ene molecules mercaptoethanol 410, cysteamine HCl420, and 3-mercaptopropionate 430 (illustrated in FIG. 4) to yielddifunctionalized thioether-linked flame retardant lysine and reducedlysine molecules.

For example, allyl difunctionalized flame retardant lysine and reducedlysine-derived molecules 1004 and 1010 can be reacted with2-mercaptoethanol 410 under UV light, resulting inhydroxyl-difunctionalized flame retardant lysine and reducedlysine-derived molecules. Allyl difunctionalized flame retardant lysineand reduced lysine-derived molecules 1004 and 1010 can be reacted withcysteamine HCl 420 in a pH of approximately 8-11 methanol (MeOH)solution under UV light to yield amino-difunctionalized flame retardantlysine and reduced lysine-derived molecules. Further, allyldifunctionalized flame retardant lysine and reduced lysine-derivedmolecules 1004 and 1010 can be reacted with 2-mercaptopropionate 430under UV light in a methanol (MeOH) solution to yield carboxylicacid-difunctionalized flame retardant lysine and reduced lysine-derivedmolecules.

FIG. 11A is a chemical diagram illustrating three processes 1100-1,1100-2, and 1100-3 of synthesizing tetrafunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecules 1102, 1104 and 1106, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. In process 1100-1, the epoxydifunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1002 is reactedwith either lithium diisopropylamine (LDA) or lithiumbis(trimethylsilyl) amide in a tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution ofapproximately −78° C. The resulting mixture is stirred for 30 minutes.Afterwards, the phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, where theR₁ functional group is an epoxy functional group 308 is added to thesolution (e.g., dropwise, while stirring). The resulting mixture is thenstirred for 16 hours while allowing it to warm gradually to roomtemperature. This yields an epoxy tetrafunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 1102.

In process 1100-2, the allyl difunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 1004 is reacted with either lithiumdiisopropylamine (LDA) or lithium bis(trimethylsilyl) amide in atetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of approximately −78° C. The resultingmixture is stirred for 30 minutes. Afterwards, the phosphorus-basedflame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an allylfunctional group 308 is added to the solution (e.g., dropwise, whilestirring). The resulting mixture is then stirred for 16 hours whileallowing it to warm gradually to room temperature. This yields an allyltetrafunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1104.

In process 1100-3, the epoxy tetrafunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 1102 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate tetrafunctionalizedflame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1106.

FIG. 11B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes1100-4, 1100-5, and 1100-6 of forming tetrafunctionalized flameretardant reduced lysine-derived molecules 1108, 1110, and 1112, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. In process1100-4, the epoxy difunctionalized flame retardant reducedlysine-derived molecule 1008 is reacted with either lithiumdiisopropylamine (LDA) or lithium bis(trimethylsilyl) amide in atetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of approximately −78° C. The resultingmixture is stirred for 30 minutes. Afterwards, the phosphorus-basedflame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an epoxyfunctional group 308 is added to the solution (e.g., dropwise, whilestirring). The resulting mixture is then stirred for 16 hours whileallowing it to warm gradually to room temperature. This yields an epoxytetrafunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule1108.

In process 1100-5, the allyl difunctionalized flame retardant reducedlysine-derived molecule 1010 is reacted with either lithiumdiisopropylamine (LDA) or lithium bis(trimethylsilyl) amide in atetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of approximately −78° C. The resultingmixture is stirred for 30 minutes. Afterwards, the phosphorus-basedflame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an allylfunctional group 307, is added to the solution (e.g., dropwise, whilestirring). The resulting mixture is then stirred for 16 hours whileallowing it to warm gradually to room temperature. This yields an allyltetrafunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1110.

In process 1100-6, the epoxy tetrafunctionalized flame retardant reducedlysine-derived molecule 1108 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate tetrafunctionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule 1112.

With respect to FIG. 11A and FIG. 11B, the same reaction conditions asimplemented in FIG. 8A through 8D can be implemented to synthesizethioether-linked tetrafunctionalized flame retardants. Specifically,allyl tetrafunctionalized flame retardant derivatives 1104 and 1110 canbe reacted with thiol-ene molecules mercaptoethanol 410, cysteamine HCl420, and 3-mercaptopropionate 430 (illustrated in FIG. 4) to yieldtetrafunctionalized thioether-linked flame retardant molecules.

FIG. 12A is a chemical diagram illustrating three processes 1200-1,1200-2, and 1200-3 of forming pentafunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecules 1202, 1204, and 1206, in accordance withembodiments of the present disclosure. In process 1200-1, the epoxyfunctionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker 615-1 is reacted witheither lithium diisopropylamine (LDA) or lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide in a tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of approximately −78° C. Theresulting mixture is stirred for 30 minutes. Afterwards, thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functionalgroup is an epoxy functional group 308 is added to the solution (e.g.,dropwise, while stirring). The resulting mixture is then stirred for 16hours while allowing it to warm gradually to room temperature. Thisyields an epoxy pentafunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derivedmolecule 1202.

In process 1200-2, the allyl functionalized flame retardant lysinecross-linker 615-2 is reacted with either lithium diisopropylamine (LDA)or lithium bis(trimethylsilyl) amide in a tetrahydrofuran (THF) solutionof approximately −78° C. The resulting mixture is stirred for 30minutes. Afterwards, the phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240,where the R₁ functional group is an allyl functional group 307 is addedto the solution (e.g., dropwise, while stirring). The resulting mixtureis then stirred for 16 hours while allowing it to warm gradually to roomtemperature. This yields an allyl pentafunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 1204.

In process 1200-3, the epoxy pentafunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 1202 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate pentafunctionalizedflame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1206.

FIG. 12B is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes1200-4, 1200-5, and 1200-6 of forming pentafunctionalized flameretardant reduced lysine derived molecules 1208, 1210, and 1212, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. In process1200-4, the epoxy functionalized flame retardant reduced lysinecross-linker 635-1 is reacted with either lithium diisopropylamine (LDA)or lithium bis(trimethylsilyl) amide in a tetrahydrofuran (THF) solutionof approximately −78° C. The resulting mixture is stirred for 30minutes. Afterwards, the phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240,where the R₁ functional group is an epoxy functional group 308 is addedto the solution (e.g., dropwise, while stirring). The resulting mixtureis then stirred for 16 hours while allowing it to warm gradually to roomtemperature. This yields an epoxy pentafunctionalized flame retardantreduced lysine-derived molecule 1208.

In process 1200-5, the allyl functionalized flame retardant reducedlysine cross-linker 635-2 is reacted with either lithiumdiisopropylamine (LDA) or lithium bis(trimethylsilyl) amide in atetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of approximately −78° C. The resultingmixture is stirred for 30 minutes. Afterwards, the phosphorus-basedflame retardant molecule 240, where the R₁ functional group is an allylfunctional group 307 is added to the solution (e.g., dropwise, whilestirring). The resulting mixture is then stirred for 16 hours whileallowing it to warm gradually to room temperature. This yields an allylpentafunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule1210.

In process 1200-6, the epoxy pentafunctionalized flame retardant reducedlysine-derived molecule 1208 is combined with lithium bromide (LiBr).Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is added to the mixture, either by injecting itinto the headspace of the reaction flask, or by bubbling it through thesolution. This process yields a propylene carbonate pentafunctionalizedflame retardant reduced lysine-derived molecule 1212.

With respect to FIG. 12A and FIG. 12B, the same reaction conditions asimplemented in FIG. 8A through 8D can be implemented to synthesizethioether-linked pentafunctionalized flame retardants. Specifically,allyl pentafunctionalized flame retardant derivatives 1204 and 1210 canbe reacted with thiol-ene molecules mercaptoethanol 410, cysteamine HCl420, and 3-mercaptopropionate 430 (illustrated in FIG. 4) to yieldpentafunctionalized thioether-linked flame retardant molecules.

With reference to the FIGS. 6-12, in some embodimentsmeta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (mCPBA) can be used to oxidize allyl R₁functional groups 307 into epoxy R₁ functional groups 308, as opposed tobinding the allyl groups directly to the precursor molecules (e.g.,lysine 505, reduced lysine 515, proline 510, and reduced proline 520).For example, flame retardant molecules 615-2, 635-2, 620-2, and 640-2can be converted into flame retardant molecules 615-1, 635-1, 620-1, and640-1 via reaction with mCPBA. These mCPBA reactions can be completedwith any allyl functionalized flame retardant molecule, including allydifunctionalized, trifunctionalized, tetrafunctionalized, andpentafunctionalized molecules.

Further, in some embodiments, stoichiometric trimethylamine is usedinstead of DMAP to phosphorylate the amino/hydroxyl functional groups.In some embodiments, phosphorylating amines/hydroxyl functional groupsincludes reacting the selected precursor and flame retardant molecule ina solution containing water (H₂O), ethanol (EtOH), carbon tetrachloride(CCl₄), and trimethylamine (Et₃N) for 2 hours at a temperature ofapproximately 0-20° C.

In some embodiments, secondary amine molecules (e.g., 615 and 635) areformed via reaction of primary amines (e.g., 505 and 515) with Et₃N andtoluene. In an example, lysine 505 is reacted with Et₃N and thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 in a toluene solution at60° C. to form the trifunctionalized flame retardant lysine cross-linker615. As another example, reduced lysine 515 is reacted with Et₃N and thephosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240 in a toluene solution at60° C. to form the trifunctionalized flame retardant reduced lysinecross-linker 635.

In some embodiments, tertiary amine molecules (e.g., 1102, 1104, 1108,and 1110) are formed via reaction of secondary amines (e.g., 1002, 1004,1008, and 1010) with Et₃N and toluene. In an example, the epoxydifunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecule 1002 is reactedwith Et₃N and the phosphorus-based flame retardant molecule 240, whereR₁ is the epoxy functional group 308, in a toluene solution at 110° C.for 5 hours to form the epoxy tetrafunctionalized flame retardantlysine-derived molecule 1102.

FIG. 13 is a chemical reaction diagram illustrating three processes1300-1, 1300-2, and 1300-3 of synthesizing flame retardant lysine-based,reduced lysine-based, proline-based, or reduced proline-based polymers1316, 1320, and 1324 from flame retardant lysine-derived, reducedlysine-derived, proline-derived, or reduced proline-derived monomers, inaccordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. Each structureshows only the ligands with R functional groups (i.e., allyl, epoxy, orpropylene carbonate). An oval labeled “D” represents thelysine-derivative, reduced lysine-derivative, proline-derivative, orreduced proline-derivative core of each monomer. The reactionsillustrated herein are prophetic examples of polymers that can besynthesized from the flame retardant lysine-derived, reducedlysine-derived, proline-derived, or reduced proline-derived monomers,but other polymers can be produced as well (e.g., by changing reactionconditions, co-monomers, R groups, etc.).

Processes 1300-1, 1300-2, and 1300-3 illustrate the polymerization ofdifunctionalized flame retardant lysine-derived molecules, reducedlysine-derived molecules, proline-derived molecules, or reducedproline-derived molecules 620, 640, 840, 842, 1002, 1004, 1006, 1008,1010, 1012 only. However, it should be noted that each of thesepolymerization reactions can also be carried out with thetrifunctionalized flame retardant lysine and reduced lysine-derivedmolecules (e.g., 615, 635, 836, and 838), tetrafunctionalized flameretardant lysine and reduced lysine-derived molecules (e.g., 1102, 1104,1106, 1108, 1110, and 1112), and pentafunctionalized flame retardantlysine and reduced lysine-derived molecules (e.g., 1202, 1204, 1206,1208, 1210, and 1212). Further, processes 1300-1 and 1300-3 maysimilarly be carried out with monofunctionalized flame retardant lysine,reduced lysine, proline, and reduced proline-derived molecules (e.g.,904, 906, 910, 912, 916, 918, 922, 924, 928, 930, 934, and 936).

In some embodiments, the polymerization reactions are carried out with acombination of mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, and/or pentafunctionalizedmonomers. Any combination of these monomers may be polymerized. Further,any ratio of monomers may be combined.

In process 1300-1, allyl-derived flame retardant lysine, reduced lysine,proline, and reduced proline based polymers 1316 are formed from allyldifunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived molecules 620-2,reduced proline-derived molecules 640-2, lysine-derived molecules 1004,and reduced lysine-derived molecules 1010. The allyl difunctionalizedflame retardant proline-derived molecules 620-2, reduced proline-derivedmolecules 640-2, lysine-derived molecules 1004, or reducedlysine-derived molecules 1010 are reacted with a Ziegler-Natta catalyst.Ziegler-Natta catalysts catalyze the polymerization of 1-alkenes.Examples of these catalysts can include heterogeneous Ziegler-Nattacatalysts based on titanium compounds and homogeneous Ziegler-Nattacatalysts based on complexes of titanium, zirconium, or hafnium.Heterogeneous and homogeneous Ziegler-Natta catalysts can be used incombination with organoaluminum co-catalysts in some embodiments.

In process 1300-2, epoxy-derived flame retardant lysine, reduced lysine,proline, and reduced proline based polymers 1320 are formed from epoxydifunctionalized flame retardant proline-derived molecules 620-1,reduced proline-derived molecules 640-1, lysine-derived molecules 1002,and reduced lysine-derived molecules 1008. The epoxy difunctionalizedflame retardant proline-derived molecules 620-1, reduced proline-derivedmolecules 640-1, lysine-derived molecules 1002, and reducedlysine-derived molecules 1008 are reacted with a base and a secondmonomer 1302. The second monomer 1302 is a compound with at least twohydroxyl (OH) groups or at least two amino (NH₂) groups (e.g., a diol,polyol, diamine, polyamine, etc.). These compounds 1302 are illustratedas a gray oval with attached A groups. The A group represents a hydroxylgroup or an amino group. It should be noted that, while two A groups areillustrated herein, there are more than two A groups in someembodiments. Additionally, in some embodiments, the epoxydifunctionalized proline-derived molecules 620-1, reducedproline-derived molecules 640-1, lysine-derived molecules 1002, andreduced lysine-derived molecules 1008 self-polymerize under basicconditions. In these instances, the reaction does not include the secondmonomer 1302.

In process 1300-3, propylene carbonate-derived flame retardant lysine,reduced lysine, proline, and reduced proline based polymers 1324 areformed from propylene carbonate-difunctionalized flame retardantproline-derived molecules 840, reduced proline-derived molecules 842,lysine-derived molecules 1006, and reduced lysine-derived molecules1012. The propylene carbonate difunctionalized flame retardantproline-derived molecules 840, reduced proline-derived molecules 842,lysine-derived molecules 1006, or reduced lysine-derived molecules 1012are reacted in a ring-opening polymerization initiated by a base.Examples of bases that can be used as initiators can include potassiumhydroxide (KOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), lithium hydroxide (LiOH), etc.

In addition to the polymers illustrated in FIG. 13, the flame retardantlysine-derivatives, reduced lysine-derivatives, proline-derivatives, orreduced proline-derivatives disclosed herein can be used in thesynthesis of other flame retardant polymers, in some embodiments. Anarray of classes of flame retardant polymers can be made with differentcombinations of monomers. These polymerization processes are inaccordance with polymer chemistry platforms that can includepolyhydroxyurethanes, polycarbonates, polymers obtained by radicalpolymerization, polyurethanes, polyesters, polyacrylates,polycarbonates, epoxy resins, polyimides, polyureas, polyamides,poly(vinyl-esters), etc.

One example of an application of polymers made, at least in part, fromflame retardant lysine-derivatives, reduced lysine-derivatives,proline-derivatives, or reduced proline-derivatives is in plastics usedin electronics hardware. Additional applications can include acousticdampening, cushioning, plastics, synthetic fibers, insulation, etc. Theflame retardant lysine-derivatives, reduced lysine-derivatives,proline-derivatives, or reduced proline-derivatives can also be used tomake adhesives such as bio-adhesives, elastomers, thermoplastics,emulsions, thermosets, etc. Further, materials containing the flameretardant lysine-derivatives, reduced lysine-derivatives,proline-derivatives, or reduced proline-derivatives can be incorporatedinto various devices with electronic components that can include printedcircuit boards (PCBs), semiconductors, transistors, optoelectronics,capacitors, resistors, etc.

Resins for printed circuit boards (PCBs) can be made flame retardant byincorporating polymers that are made, at least in part, fromlysine-derivatives, reduced lysine-derivatives, proline-derivatives, orreduced proline-derivatives. PCBs are electrical circuits that can befound in most types of electronic devices, and they support andelectronically connect electrical components in the device. PCBs areformed by etching a copper conductive layer laminated onto an insulatingsubstrate. The insulating substrate can be a laminate comprising a resinand a fiber. Many resins in PCBs contain a polymer, such as an epoxy, apolyhydroxyurethane, a polycarbonate, a polyester, a polyacrylate, apolyimide, a polyamide, a polyurea, a poly(vinyl-ester), etc. Usingpolymers that incorporate the flame retardant lysine-derivatives,reduced lysine-derivatives, proline-derivatives, or reducedproline-derivatives can prevent the PCB from catching fire when exposedto high temperature environments or electrical power overloads.

It should be noted that, in some embodiments, the compounds describedherein can contain one or more chiral centers. These can include racemicmixtures, diastereomers, enantiomers, and mixtures containing one ormore stereoisomer. Further, the disclosed can encompass racemic forms ofthe compounds in addition to individual stereoisomers, as well asmixtures containing any of these.

The synthetic processes discussed herein and their accompanying drawingsare prophetic examples, and are not limiting; they can vary in reactionconditions, components, methods, etc. In addition, the reactionconditions can optionally be changed over the course of a process.Further, in some embodiments, processes can be added or omitted whilestill remaining within the scope of the disclosure, as will beunderstood by a person of ordinary skill in the art.

What is claimed is:
 1. A flame retardant lysine-derived molecule with aformula of:

wherein X is selected from a group consisting of a methanediyl moietyand a carbonyl moiety; wherein FR is a phosphorus-based moiety; whereinR₁ is a substituent selected from a group consisting of an allylsubstituent, an epoxide substituent, a propylene carbonate substituent,a phenyl substituent, and a thioether substituent; wherein R₂ is asubstituent selected from a group consisting of an allyl substituent, anepoxide substituent, a propylene carbonate substituent, a phenylsubstituent, and a thioether substituent; wherein R₃ is a substituentselected from a group consisting of an allyl substituent, an epoxidesubstituent, a propylene carbonate substituent, a phenyl substituent,and a thioether substituent.
 2. The flame retardant lysine-derivedmolecule of claim 1, wherein the FR is a phosphoryl moiety with aformula of:


3. The flame retardant lysine-derived molecule of claim 1, wherein theFR is a phosphonyl moiety with a formula of:


4. The flame retardant lysine-derived molecule of claim 1, wherein R₁ isthe phenyl substituent, wherein R₂ is the phenyl substituent, andwherein R₃ is the phenyl substituent.
 5. The flame retardantlysine-derived molecule of claim 1, wherein R₁ is the epoxidesubstituent, wherein R₂ is the epoxide substituent, and wherein R₃ isthe epoxide substituent.
 6. The flame retardant lysine-derived moleculeof claim 1, wherein R₁ is the allyl substituent, wherein R₂ is the allylsubstituent, and wherein R₃ is the allyl substituent.
 7. The flameretardant lysine-derived molecule of claim 1, wherein R₁ is thepropylene carbonate substituent, wherein R₂ is the propylene carbonatesubstituent, and wherein R₃ is the propylene carbonate substituent. 8.The flame retardant lysine-derived molecule of claim 1, wherein thethioether substituent is selected from a group consisting of ahydroxyl-functionalized thioether substituent, an amino-functionalizedthioether substituent, and a carboxylic acid-functionalized thioethersubstituent.
 9. The flame retardant lysine-derived molecule of claim 1,wherein R₁ is the phenyl substituent, wherein R₃ is the phenylsubstituent, and wherein R₂ is not the phenyl substituent.
 10. The flameretardant lysine-derived molecule of claim 1, wherein R₁ is not thephenyl substituent, wherein R₃ is not the phenyl substituent, andwherein R₂ is the phenyl substituent.
 11. A flame retardantproline-derived molecule with a formula of:

wherein X is selected from a group consisting of a methanediyl moietyand a carbonyl moiety; wherein FR is a phosphorus-based moiety; whereinR₁ is a substituent selected from a group consisting of an allylsubstituent, an epoxide substituent, a propylene carbonate substituent,a phenyl substituent, and a thioether substituent; wherein R₂ is asubstituent selected from a group consisting of an allyl substituent, anepoxide substituent, a propylene carbonate substituent, a phenylsubstituent, and a thioether substituent.
 12. The flame retardantproline-derived molecule of claim 11, wherein the FR is a phosphorylmoiety with a formula of:


13. The flame retardant proline-derived molecule of claim 11, whereinthe FR is a phosphonyl moiety with a formula of:


14. The flame retardant proline-derived molecule of claim 11, wherein R₁is the phenyl substituent and wherein R₂ is the phenyl substituent. 15.The flame retardant proline-derived molecule of claim 11, wherein R₁ isthe epoxide substituent and wherein R₂ is the epoxide substituent. 16.The flame retardant proline-derived molecule of claim 11, wherein R₁ isthe allyl substituent and wherein R₂ the allyl substituent.
 17. Theflame retardant proline-derived molecule of claim 11, wherein R₁ is thepropylene carbonate substituent and wherein R₂ is the propylenecarbonate substituent.
 18. The flame retardant proline-derived moleculeof claim 11, wherein the thioether substituent is selected from a groupconsisting of a hydroxyl-functionalized thioether substituent, anamino-functionalized thioether substituent, and a carboxylicacid-functionalized thioether substituent.
 19. The flame retardantproline-derived molecule of claim 11, wherein R₁ is a phenyl substituentand wherein R₂ is not a phenyl substituent.
 20. An article ofmanufacture, comprising a material containing the flame retardantlysine-derived molecule of claim 1, wherein the article of manufacturefurther comprises a printed circuit board (PCB).